Technical Report Risk Profile on Edible Insects
Edible insects: Appendices
All appendices for the edible insects risk profile technical report.
Table A
Microbial levels for different unprocessed edible insects (* potential EU food, †potential EU feed, ‡ potential pet food refer to EFSA, 2013?) measured the harvest stage (larval or adult).
| Insect species | Hazard | Load (log cfu/g) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Total aerobic count | 8.6 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Yeast and mould count | 4.7 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (non-starved) | Total aerobic count | 6.4-7.8 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (non-starved) | Enterobacteriaceae | 5.8-6.4 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (non-starved) | Staphylococci | 3.8-5.9 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (non-starved) | Lactic acid bacteria | 5.2-6.2 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (non-starved) | Bacterial endospores | 0.0-5.3 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (starved) | Total aerobic count | 6.4-7.6 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (starved) | Enterobacteriaceae | 4.9-6.4 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (starved) | Staphylococci | 3.9-4.9 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (starved) | Lactic acid bacteria | 4.9-6.1 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ (starved) | Bacterial endospores | 0.0-3.6 | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Enterobacteriaceae | 6.1-7.1 | Osimani et al., 2018a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Lactic acid bacteria | 7.7-8.2 | Osimani et al., 2018a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Mesophilic aerobes | 8.2-8.5 | Osimani et al., 2018a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Spore-forming bacteria | 3.6-3.7 | Osimani et al., 2018a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Total aerobic count | 7.7-8.3 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Enterobacteriaceae | 6.8-7.6 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Lactic acid bacteria | 7.0-7.6 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Bacterial endospores | <1.0-3.5 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Yeast and mould count | 5.2-5.7 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Total aerobic count | 8.0-9.3 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Enterobacteriaceae | 6.8-8.3 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Lactic acid bacteria | 7.3-8.2 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Aerobic bacterial endospores | 1.7-5.0 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Bacterial endospores | 4.8-9.1 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Yeast and mould count | 4.2-7.5 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Hermetia illucens† | Bacillus cereus | 3.82 | Wyants et al., 2019 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Total aerobic count | 7.9 | Caparros megido et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Yeast and mould count |
4.8 |
Caparros megido et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Total aerobic count | 8.1-8.8 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Enterobacteriaceae | 7.2-8.3 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Lactic acid bacteria | 7.4-8.8 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Aerobic bacterial endospores | 2.6-4.9 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Bacterial endospores | <3.0-5.5 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Yeast and mould count | 5.6-7.2 | Vandeweyer et al,. 2017a |
| Locusta migratoria*‡ | Total aerobic count | 7.8-8.6 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Locusta migratoria*‡ | Enterobacteriaceae | 7.1-7.6 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Locusta migratoria*‡ | Bacterial endospores | 3.3-3.8 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Locusta migratoria*‡ | Lactic acid bacteria |
7.6-85 |
Stoops et al., 2016 |
| Locusta migratoria*‡ | Yeast and mould count | 5.0-5.4 | Stoops et al., 2016 |
2 Bacterial levels in both fresh insects and substrate were consistent with those reported by other authors other than Bacillus cereus levels. Authors concluded there existed no exclusive correlation between the substrate’s microbial composition and the microbial composition of the BSF larvae, and argue that these differences are caused by multiple other factors, including type of substrate, rearing practices and parental origin of the larvae.
Table B
Microbial levels for different processed edible insects (* potential EU food, ‡ potential pet food refer to EFSA, 2013).
| Insect species | Hazard | Processing | Load (log cfu/g) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Total aerobic count | 1-min water (80-100c) | 4.64 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Yeast and mould count | 1-min water (80-100c) | <1.0 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Total aerobic count | Freeze dried | 4.47 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Yeast and mould count | Freeze dried | <1.0 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Moulds | Boiled and dried | 2.21-2.30 | Garofalo et al., 2017 |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Mesophilic aerobes | Boiled and dried | 2.6-.4.8 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Enterobacteriaceae | Boiled and dried | <1.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Sulphite-reducing clostridia | Boiled and dried | 1.5-4.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Staphylococcus aureus | Boiled and dried | <1.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Bacillus cereus | Boiled and dried | <1.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Lactic acid bacteria | Boiled and dried | 1.7-2.8 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Tenebrio molitor*‡ | Yeasts and moulds | Boiled and dried | <1.0-2.4 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Total aerobic count | 4-min blanched | 4.39 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Yeast and mould count | 4-min blanched | <1.0 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Total aerobic count | Freeze dried | 4.05 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ | Yeast and mould count | Freeze dried | <1.0 | Caparros Megido et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (whole) | Enterobacteriaceae, Clostridium perfringens spores and moulds | Boiled and dried | <2.00 | Garofalo et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (whole) | Mesophillic aerobes | Boiled and dried | 4.01-4.50 | Garofalo et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (whole) | Yeasts | Boiled and dried | 4.52-5.10 | Garofalo et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, Clostridium perfringens spores and moulds | Boiled and dried | <2.00 | Garofalo et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Mesophilic aerobes | Boiled and dried | 3.91-4.80 | Garofalo et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Moulds | Boiled and dried | 2.92-3.10 | Garofalo et al., 2017 |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (whole) | Mesophilic aerobes | Boiled and dried | 4.2 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (whole) | Enterobacteriaceae, suplhite-reducing clostridia, Staphylococcus aureus and yeasts and moulds | Boiled and dried | <1.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (whole) | Bacillus cereus | Boiled and dried | 3.6 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (whole) | Lactic acid bacteria | Boiled and dried | 2.1 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Mesophilic aerobes | Boiled and dried | 5.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Enterobacteriaceae | Boiled and dried | 3.1 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Sulphite-reducing clostridia | Boiled and dried | 2.8 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Staphylococcus aureus | Boiled and dried |
<1.0 |
Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Bacillus cereus | Boiled and dried | 5.1 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Lactic acid bacteria | Boiled and dried | 5.5 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Yeasts | Boiled and dried | 2.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Acheta domesticus*‡ (powdered) | Moulds | Boiled and dried | 3.3 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Gryllodes sigillatus*‡ | Total viable counts | Boiled | 2.6 | Vandeweyer et al., 2018 |
| Gryllodes sigillatus*‡ | Total viable counts | Frozen (-20c) | 2.4 | Vandeweyer et al., 2018 |
| Gryllodes sigillatus*‡ | Total viable counts | Oven dried (10 hours 80c) | 4.3 | Vandeweyer et al., 2018 |
| Gryllodes sigillatus*‡ | Total viable counts | Smoked and dried | 7.93 | Vandeweyer et al., 2018 |
| Schistocerca gregaria*‡ (whole) | Mesophillic aerobes | Boiled and dried | 4.1 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Schistocerca gregaria*‡ (whole) | Enterobacteriaceae, sulphite-reducing clostridia, Staphylococcus aureus | Boiled and dried | <1.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Schistocerca gregaria*‡ (whole) | Bacillus cereus | Boiled and dried | 2.1 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Schistocerca gregaria*‡ (whole) | Lactic acid bacteria | Boiled and dried | 2.4 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Schistocerca gregaria*‡ (whole) | Yeasts | Boiled and dried | 2.0 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
| Schistocerca gregaria*‡ (whole) | Moulds | Boiled and dried | 2.2 | Osimani et al., 2017c |
Authors associate this higher count to external contamination after treatment.
Table C
Composition variability for insects (DM= dry matter; * potential EU food, †potential EU feed, ‡ potential pet food refer to EFSA, 2013).
| Species | Feed | Fibre | Fat | Protein | Ash | Moisture | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae day 1) | Chicken feed | - | 4.8% | 56.2% | - | - | Liu et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae day 14) | Chicken feed | - | 28.4% | 39.2% | - | - | Liu et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Pupa) | - | - | 7.2% | 43.8% | - | - | Liu et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Adults) | Chicken feed | - | 21.6% | 57.6% | - | - | Liu et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Vegetables | - | 2% | 14% | - | 78% | Jucker et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Fruit | - | 21% | 12% | - | 62% | Jucker et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Fruit and vegetables | - | 12% | 18% | - | 62% | Jucker et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Plant-based | - | 33.8% | - | 5.1% | 63.4% | Liu et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Asophyllum nodosum | - | 8.1% | - | 15.8% | 76.9% | Liu et al., 2017 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Fruit and vegetables (7:3) | 17%DM | 26.8%DM | 41.8%DM | 12.9%DM | - | Meneguz et al., 2018 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Fruit | 19.7%DM | 40.7%DM | 30.7%DM | 7.2%DM | - | Meneguz et al., 2018 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Winery by-products | 17.7%DM | 32.2%DM | 34.4%DM | 14.5%DM | - | Meneguz et al., 2018 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Brewery by-products | 8.7% | 29.8%DM | 52.9%DM | 7.3%DM | - | Meneguz et al., 2018 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Poultry feed | 8.75% | 4.02% | 14.7% | - | 66.5% | Nguyen et al., 2015 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Pig liver | 13.7% | 8.39% | 21% | - | 55.3% | Nguyen et al., 2015 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Fruit and vegetables | 8.38% | 2.2% | 12.9% | - | 71.8% | Nguyen et al., 2015 |
| Hermetia ilucens† (Larvae) | Rendered fish | 12.7% | 11.6% | 19.4% | - | 53.4% | Nguyen et al., 2015 |
| Tenebrio molitor*† (Larvae) | Brewery spent grains | 12.54% | 6.46% | 13.22% | - | 66.66% | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*† (Larvae) | Bread | 6.09% | 14.82% | 10.73% | - | 67.38% | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*† (Larvae) | Cookies | 6.72% | 17.77% | 10.15% | - | 64.45% | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*† (Larvae) | Grains and cookies | 11.26% | 11.77% | 13.44% | - | 62.47% | Mancini et al., 2019a |
| Tenebrio molitor*† (Larvae) | Bread and cookies | 6.12% | 17.48% | 10.72% | - | 64.66% | Mancini et al., 2019a |
Table D
Key hazards identified in this literature review by insect species
Species: Acheta domesticus
Hazards identified:
Microorganisms (other than parasites)
- Aerobic bacteria (Caparros Megido et al., 2017, Vandeweyer et al., 2017a, Garofalo et al., 2017, Osimani et al., 2017c)
- Yeasts and moulds (Caparros Megido et al., 2017, Vandeweyer et al., 2017a, Garofalo et al., 2017, Osimani et al., 2017c)
- Lactic acid bacteria (Vandeweyer et al., 2017a, Garofalo et al., 2017, Osimani et al., 2017c)
- Bacterial endospores (Vandeweyer et al., 2017a, Garofalo et al., 2017, Osimani et al., 2017c)
- Enterobacteriaceae (Vandeweyer et al., 2017a, Garofalo et al., 2017, Osimani et al., 2017c)
- Staphylococcus aureus (Osimani et al., 2017c)
- Cronobacter sakazakii (Walia et al. 2018)
Parasites
- Isospora spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
AMR genes
- tet(M) (Milanović et al., 2016)
- tet(K) (Milanović et al., 2016)
- tet(O) (Milanović et al., 2016)
- tet(S) (Roncoli et al. 2019)
Allergenicity: Cross-reactivity
- Tropomyosin (Pali-Schöll et al., 2019)
Species: Hermetia ilucens
Hazards identified:
Microorganisms (other than parasites)
- Bacillus cereus (Wynants et al., 2019)
Parasites
- Eimeria nieschulzi (Muller et al. 2019)
Eimeria tenella (Muller et al. 2019)
Ascaris suum (Muller et al. 2019)
Heavy metals accumulation:
- Cadmium (Biancarosa et al. 2018, Purschke et al. 2017)
- Arsenic (Biancarosa et al. 2018)
- Mercury (Biancarosa et al. 2018)
- Lead (Biancarosa et al. 2018, Purschke et al. 2017)
- Mycotoxins accumulation
- Aflatoxin B1 (Bosch et al. 2017)
Species: Locusta Migratoria
Hazards identified:
Microorganisms (other than parasites)
- Aerobic bacteria (Stoops et al., 2016)
Yeasts and moulds (Stoops et al., 2016)
Lactic acid bacteria (Stoops et al., 2016)
Bacterial endospores (Stoops et al., 2016)
Enterobacteria (Stoops et al., 2016)
Parasites
- Isospora spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
Balantidium spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
Entamoeba spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
AMR genes
- tet(M) (Osimani et al., 2017b)
tet(K) (Osimani et al., 2017b)
bla(Z) (Osimani et al., 2017b)
erm- (Osimani et al., 2017b)
aac-aph (Osimani et al., 2017b)
Species: Tenebrio molitor
Hazards identified:
Microorganisms (other than parasites)
- Aerobic bacteria (Caparros Megido et al., 2017, Mancini et al., 2019a, Osimani et al., 2017c, Osimani et al., 2018a, Stoops et al., 2016, Vandeweyer et al., 2017a)
Yeasts and moulds (Caparros Megido et al., 2017, Mancini et al., 2019a, Stoops et al., 2016, Vandeweyer et al., 2017a, Osimani et al., 2017c)
Lactic acid bacteria (Mancini et al., 2019a, Osimani et al., 2017c, Osimani et al., 2018a, Stoops et al., 2016, Vandeweyer et al., 2017a)
Bacterial endospores (Mancini et al., 2019a, Osimani et al., 2018a, Stoops et al., 2016, Vandeweyer et al., 2017a)
Staphylococci (Mancini et al., 2019a, Osimani et al., 2017c)
Enterobacteriaceae (Mancini et al., 2019a, Stoops et al., 2016, Vandeweyer et al., 2017a, Osimani et al., 2017c)
Parasites
- Isospora spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
Balantidium spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
Entamoeba spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
AMR genes and substances
- tet(M) (Milanović et al., 2016)
tet(S) (Milanović et al., 2016)
tet(K) (Milanović et al., 2016)
erm(B) (Osimani et al., 2017a)
aac-aph (Osimani et al., 2017a)
Chitosan (Shin et al., 2019)
Heavy metals accumulation
- Cadmium (Bednarska and Świątek 2016, van der Fels-Klerx et al. 2016)
- Zinc (Bednarska and Świątek, 2016)
- Arsenic (van der Fels-Klerx et al. 2016)
- Lead (van der Fels-Klerx et al. 2016)
Mycotoxins accumulation
- Aflatoxin B1 (Bosch et al. 2017)
Pesticides accumulation
- Diflufenican (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Fenpropimorph (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Isoproturon (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Linuron (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Mefenoxam (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Pendimethalin (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Pyrimethanil (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Tebuconazole (Houbraken et al., 2016)
Allergenicity: cross-reactivity
- Apolipophorin-III (Barre et al., 2019)
Larval cuticular protein (Barre et al., 2019)
Hemolymph protein (Barre et al., 2019)
Tropomyosin (Pali-Schöll et al., 2019, Broekman et al., 2016)
Species: Schistocerca gregaria
Hazards identified:
Microorganisms (other than parasites)
- Aerobic bacteria (Osimani et al., 2017c)
Yeasts and moulds (Osimani et al., 2017c)
Bacillus cereus (Osimani et al., 2017c)
Enterobacteriaceae (Osimani et al., 2017c)
Staphylococcus aureus (Osimani et al., 2017c)
Allergencity: cross-reactivity
- Tropomyosin (Pali-Schöll et al., 2019)
Species: Blattodea spp.
Hazards identified:
Parasites
- Isospora spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
Balantidium spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
Entamoeba spp. (Gałęcki and Sokół, 2019)
Species: Musca domestica
Hazards identified:
Microorganisms (other than Parasites)
- Salmonella enterica (Pava-ripoll et al. 2015)
Cronobacter sakazakii (Pava-ripoll et al. 2015)
Escherichia coli 0157:h7 (Pava-ripoll et al. 2015)
Listeria monocytogenes (Pava-ripoll et al. 2015)
Species: Bombyx mori
Hazards identified:
AMR genes
- tet(S) (Milanović et al., 2016)
tet(K) (Milanović et al., 2016)
bla(Z) (Milanović et al., 2016)
BmGlv2 (Shin et al., 2019)
Heavy metals accumulation
- Arsenic (Feng et al. 2019)
- Cadmium (Feng et al. 2019)
- Lead (Feng et al. 2019)